By Divya Chowdhary, M.A. (Palaeography, Epigraphy & Numismatics) Indian Institute of Heritage, Noida.
Each year on October 11, the International Day for Girl Child as observed by UNESCO casts a spotlight on the urgent need to address the challenges and inequalities faced by girls around the world. This day not only raises awareness about the barriers to equality—such as access to education, healthcare, and protection from discrimination and violence—but also celebrates the potential of girls when these barriers are removed. The historical context of the girl child in ancient India offers a poignant backdrop against which to examine these ongoing global challenges.
In ancient Indian society, the status of daughters was complex- celebrated and demeaned with societal limitations at the same time. Girls were generally less preferred as children due to the patriarchal psychology: her coming was more of a liability than an asset to her father. The daughter was expected to marry and join another family, which meant she could not continue her paternal family name. Moreover, traditional norms and legal frameworks would typically prevent her from inheriting property, as any wealth they received would ultimately become part of her marital family’s estate, thus not remaining within her father’s lineage. Administrative and military roles would be largely barred to her, attributed to her perceived natural limitations. The birth of a daughter was also undesirable because she was “incapable of paving the path to the heavenly region for her father” (ie. performing the rituals for moksha for her pitras).
Since the Vedic Age, the status of daughters has been rather complex, which is contrary to what different schools of historiography and even political ideologies would like to portray. For instance, Altekar observes that in one of the early Upanishads, recommendations have been made to a householder for performing a certain ritual to obtain a scholarly daughter- though this ritual did not become as popular as the Pumsavana one, prescribed for producing the birth of a son. This could reflect that the daughter’s potential was certainly known (for example, Gargi Vachaknavi and Maitreyi, the celebrated scholars from Vedic Age) but was cast aside due to the desire for male progeny.
The many princesses that we hear of in Ancient Indian history have unanimously been dealt as the property of their fathers at some point in their lives, and marriage and motherhood were made the two defining tasks for them. Yet, recorded history boasts of remarkable daughters who transcended societal boundaries to continue and enhance their fathers' legacies, showcasing the potential of girls to contribute significantly to society when given the opportunity.
According to Indian and Sri Lankan records, Sanghamitra (Pali: Theri Sanghamitta) (3rd century BCE) was the daughter of the world-famous Mauryan emperor Ashoka, from his first wife Devi (who was also a Buddhist). Together with her brother Mahendra, she is known for taking the message of Buddha and her father Ashoka's mission beyond the Mauryan Empire's boundaries. According to Dipavamsa, Mahindra's mission to Sri Lanka was a great success, and among the converts was Princess Anula, the king of Sri Lanka Tissa’s sister-in-law, who requested ordination. King Tissa wrote to Emperor Ashoka, asking him to send Sanghamitta for this purpose. Mahindra also requested his father to send his sister to ordain Anula and other women.
Though initially hesitant, Ashoka agreed after Sanghamitra, mother to Samanera and a very learned Theri by then, insisted, explaining that it was necessary to fulfil her brother's request and ordain the many women in Sri Lanka. Sanghamitta, along with ten other bhikkhunis, travelled by sea, carrying a sapling of the Bodhi Tree in a golden vase. Upon her arrival in Jambukola, King Tissa received her with reverence. The Bodhi sapling was ceremonially planted in the Mahameghavana Grove in Anuradhapura, where it remains to this day. Sanghamitra is thus credited with the establishment of the Order of the Nuns in Sri Lanka, and spreading the ideas and mission of her father Ashoka successfully.

The case of Prabhāvatīgupta (4th century CE), the daughter of Chandragupta II with Kuberanaga, throws light on the role of the king’s daughters in politico-diplomatic revolutions. According to SR Goyal, Guptas and Vākaṭakas had emerged parallelly as local powers, followed by a period of rivalry without open hostility. Subsequently, Samudragupta’s conquests led to a period of Gupta hegemony over the Vākaṭakas. It was followed by a period of Vakatakas under the friendly protection of the Guptas. In this context, the marriage of Prabhavatigupta with Rudrasena II Vakataka is considered a game-changer in the politics of those times.
Whether the Shaka campaign of Vikramaditya (i.e. Chandragupta II) was a defining factor in the Gupta-Vakataka matrimonial alliance is subject to chronological delineations. However, it is certain that there was an incredible increase in the Gupta influence over the Vakatakas during Prabhavatigupta's regency. For at least the two long decades that she ruled as the Vakataka queen, the Gupta princess had virtually added the kingdom to that of her father’s empire. She ruled as “the mother of two kings”, referring to her middle and younger son, Damodarsena and Pravarasena II respectively. She is even understood by some historians to be the reason for her husband Rudrasena II’s shift of belief towards Vaishanavism.

It may be noted that after the demise of her husband Rudrasena II, Prabhavati had held on to the Vakataka throne despite the strong & legitimate claims of Vindhyashakti II- the contemporary ruler of the Basim branch of the Vakatakas, who was the eldest agnatic male in the entire ruling house.
Her pride in her Gupta lineage is evident in her copper plate grants, where she prioritized her paternal Gupta ancestry over her marital Vakataka lineage. She identified with the Dharana gotra of her father's lineage instead of that of Vakatakas (ie. Vishnuvriddha), emphasizing her Gupta origin. Her story serves as a testament to the pivotal roles royal daughters would play in political and diplomatic spheres, leaving a lasting impact on dynastic histories.
The Vedic ideology has considered the existence of a brotherless daughter as deplorable, because her son would have to give up the liberating rights towards his paternal family and adopt that towards his maternal grandfather. Applying this context, one may critique the success of Sanghamitra and Prabhavatigupta by noting that they were not brotherless. Yet their achievements must be seen in their independent capacity, as we have other examples of brotherless daughters achieving equally great things.
In conclusion, the stories of remarkable daughters like Sanghamitra and Prabhavatigupta showcase the immense potential daughters have in carrying forward the mission and legacy of their families. Despite the complex and often challenging status of girls in ancient India—where they were seen as burdens, not inheritors of property, and excluded from administrative and military roles—these women defied societal norms to become pivotal figures in religion, politics, and diplomacy. Their achievements serve as powerful reminders that the abilities and contributions of daughters, when given the chance, can surpass expectations.
If we break down the societal barriers that have historically limited girls' opportunities, the daughters of today can follow in the footsteps of these historical icons. When empowered, each girl in India has the potential to become the next Sanghamitra, spreading wisdom and enlightenment, or the next Prabhavatigupta, wielding political influence to change the course of history. By investing in their education, leadership, and development, we can unlock our daughters' vast potential to shape their families, the nation, and the world. The legacy of our daughters, just like those from the past, can be one of transformation and greatness if we nurture their dreams and support their paths to success.
Bibliography:-
“VEDIC DAUGHTER on JSTOR.” n.d. Www.Jstor.Org.
Altekar, Anant Sadashiv (1956). The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, from Prehistoric Times to the Present Day. India: Motilal Banarsidass.
Singh, Upinder (2009). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India : from the Stone Age to the 12th century. New Delhi: Pearson Longman. p. 482. ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
"Theri Sanghamitta and The Bodhii—tree" (PDF). California: A Gift of Dhamma:Maung Paw. pp. 1–8.
Goyal, SR (2006). A History of the Vākaṭaka-Gupta Relations. India: Kusumanjali Book World.
Bakker, Hans (1997). The Vakatakas: An Essay in Hindu Iconology. Groningen: Egbert Forsten. p. 170. ISBN 9069801000.
Shastri, Ajay Mitra (1997). Vakatakas: Sources and History. Aryan Books International. p. 182. ISBN 9788173051234.
Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). A History of India (Fourth ed.). Routledge. p. 91. ISBN 9780415329200.
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