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Science Day: Ancient Contributions to Knowledge and Discovery

Writer's picture: CRIAAS NashikCRIAAS Nashik

Puja Kumari : M.A (Fine) Museology (Maharaja Sayajirao University, Baroda)Divya Chowdhary: M.A. Palaeography, Epigraphy & Numismatics (IIH Noida)

Saurabh Patil: M.A. AIHC & Archaeology (Deccan College PGRI, Pune)



World Science Day for Peace and Development, celebrated every year on November 10, is a special occasion dedicated to recognizing the crucial role that science plays in society. It encourages everyone to join the conversation on scientific issues shaping our future and highlights the importance of science in our daily lives. The day is also a reminder of the profound contributions made by various ancient civilizations to the development of science, which laid the groundwork for advancements that continue to benefit humanity.

The origins of science trace back to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (3000-1200 BCE), where early advances in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine profoundly influenced Greek natural philosophy. Greek thinkers sought natural explanations for physical events, an approach that continued to evolve after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. While Greek knowledge declined in Latin-speaking Western Europe, it flourished in the Byzantine Empire and was preserved by scholars in the Islamic world during the Islamic Golden Age. By the 10th-13th centuries, this knowledge was reintroduced to Western Europe, sparking a revival in natural philosophy.

Simultaneously, independent scientific traditions developed in ancient India and China, influencing regions like Vietnam, Korea, and Japan. In Mesoamerica, the Zapotec and Maya civilizations made strides in astronomy and mathematics, creating complex calendars. These early contributions laid a global foundation for scientific progress, and today’s World Science Day reminds us of the enduring impact of this shared heritage. This article deals with select scientific traditions and personalities from India and China.


India: It’s not just a land of snake-charmers

“When the Western powers were competing to colonise India, they presented India as a land of snake charmers, primarily to discredit India’s non-mechanised industrial production and traditional scholarship.” However, the traditional scholarship of Ancient India had made remarkable strides in science and technology, advancing fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, metallurgy, and engineering which was conveniently sidelined from the mainstream historical narratives. 

Unlike many other ancient societies, Indian scientists pursued knowledge through empirical observation and logical reasoning, aiming not only for practical applications but also for philosophical insights into the nature of reality. Texts like the Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas contain references to scientific concepts and natural laws, while specialised works, such as Aryabhatiya in mathematics and astronomy, or the Sushruta Samhita in medicine, reveal sophisticated knowledge systems.

Mathematics and astronomy were highly developed, with scholars like Aryabhata and Brahmagupta laying foundations that influenced later work in algebra, trigonometry, and celestial mechanics. These early Indian mathematicians devised advanced techniques for calculating planetary orbits, eclipses, and trigonometric functions. Medicine, too, reached a high degree of sophistication, with texts like Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita detailing surgical procedures, anatomical knowledge, and pharmacology. Indian metallurgists, known for producing high-quality iron, demonstrated their skill with artifacts like the Iron Pillar of Delhi, which has resisted rusting for over a millennium.


Aryabhatta (476-550 CE)

Aryabhatta, born in 476 CE in Kusumapura (modern-day Patna), was an eminent mathematician and astronomer. His primary work, Aryabhatiya, composed around 499 CE, contains four chapters: Gitikapada, Ganitapada, Kalakriyapada, and Golapada, covering a wide range of subjects, from arithmetic and algebra to planetary motion.

 Statue of Aaryabhatta in IUCAA, Pune
 Statue of Aaryabhatta in IUCAA, Pune

Aryabhata’s insights on the Earth’s rotation and the cause of day and night were groundbreaking. He stated that “the sphere of stars (nakshatra) is stationary, and the Earth, rotating on its axis, creates the impression of their movement”


अनुलोमगतिर्नौस्थः पश्यत्यचलं विलोमगं यद्वत्।

अचलानि भानितद्वत् समपश्चिमगानि लङ्कायाम्।

(Aryabhatiya, Golapada.9) (Clark, 1930). 


This heliocentric concept preceded similar European theories by nearly a millennium. Aryabhata also approximated π (pi) to be 3.1416, expressing it as “the ratio of 62,832 to 20,000” (Aryabhatiya, Ganitapada,10) (Clark, 1930), a calculation close to modern values and highly influential for later scholars like Brahmagupta and Bhaskara.


Sushruta (7th–6th century BCE)

Sushruta, a pioneering physician of ancient India, is regarded as the “Father of Surgery.” His Sushruta Samhita is one of the earliest comprehensive medical texts, covering anatomy, pharmacology, and surgical techniques. Notably, Sushruta described rhinoplasty (reconstruction of the nose) in meticulous detail, a practice developed to address punitive amputations common in ancient India ( Sutrasthana, XXIV.24) (Bhishagratna, 1907). He also elaborated on the use of 125 surgical instruments, many of which bear a resemblance to modern surgical tools, and outlined 300 surgical procedures, including cataract surgery. The text contains 186 chapters, which contains the description of 1120 illnesses, 700 medicinal plants. His understanding of human anatomy and surgical principles formed a foundational basis for Indian medical sciences, influencing practices up to modern times (Jolly, 1977).


It would be plausible to say that Aryabhata’s models of planetary motion and Sushruta’s surgical techniques demonstrate how Indian civilization fostered scientific inquiry long before similar concepts emerged in the West. The contributions of these two scientists not only transformed ancient Indian knowledge but also enriched global scientific understanding.


China- It’s not just about dragons, kung-fu & Jackie Chan

“China’s ascendance in global politics and economy has heightened the interest of the mass media and the general public toward the country. Perceptions about China have fluctuated over the years and between the countries”. In this context, when we talk of its history, ancient Chinese scientists have made significant contributions to the development of science as well. Key inventions, such as the seismoscope, compass, and papermaking, as well as breakthroughs in mathematics and medicine, reflect the depth of scientific thought in ancient China. These early innovations not only advanced knowledge in China but also had a lasting impact on the wider scientific community.


Zhang Heng (張衡) (78-139 AD), a polymath of the Eastern Han Dynasty, is renowned for his pioneering contributions to a variety of fields, including astronomy, mathematics, and engineering. Among his most significant inventions was the seismoscope, a device he developed in 132 CE to detect and determine the direction of earthquakes. 


The Seismoscope Design and Mechanism

Zhang Heng’s seismoscope was a bronze instrument approximately two metres in diameter, designed in the shape of a large ceremonial vessel adorned with decorative engravings of dragons and toads. The seismoscope featured a central pillar with eight radial transmitting rods arranged symmetrically around it. Each of the eight dragons positioned around the vessel faced the principal direction of the compass and held a bronze ball in its mouth. Beneath each dragon was a toad with an open mouth, intended to catch the ball when it was dropped.

The device functioned through a complex mechanism. When seismic waves from an earthquake reached the instrument, the shaking of the ground caused the mechanism to activate. The wave motion was detected by the instrument’s internal components, which then triggered the release of a ball from the dragon’s mouth. The direction from which the ball fell indicated the epicenter of the earthquake. Importantly, only one ball would be released per earthquake, allowing the instrument to identify the direction of the seismic disturbance accurately.


Historical Significance and Early Validation

Compared with all the materials word by word, there are 238 Chinese characters regarding Zhnag Heng’s seismoscope.


(陽嘉元年,秋七月,史官張衡始作候風地動銅儀。) 

 (以精銅鑄其器,圓徑八尺,形似酒尊,其蓋窮隆,飾 以篆文,山龜鳥獸之形。尊中有都柱,傍行八道,施關發機。外有八方兆,龍首銜銅丸,下 有蟾蜍承之。其機關巧製,皆隱在尊中。張訖,覆之以蓋,周密無際,若一體焉。如有地動, 地動搖尊,尊則振,則隨其方面,龍機發,即吐丸,蟾蜍張口受丸。丸聲振揚,司者因此覺 知。雖一龍發機,而其餘七首不動,則知地震所起從來也。驗之以事,合契若神。來觀之者, 莫不服其奇。自古所來,書典所記,未常有也) 

 (嘗一龍發機,而地不覺動,京師學者咸怪 其無征。後數日驛至,果地震隴西,於是皆服其妙。自此之後,乃令史官記地動所從方起) 


This was a remarkable achievement in its ability to detect seismic activity, providing both a timestamp and directional data for the event. According to historical records, the instrument was first tested when it triggered the release of a ball, but no earthquake was initially felt in the capital. Several days later, a report confirmed that an earthquake had indeed occurred in the Longxi region, validating the instrument’s design and accuracy. This early success led to its widespread recognition, and the imperial court ordered historians to record the direction of future earthquakes using Zhang Heng’s seismoscope.


The device was an extraordinary example of early Chinese ingenuity and marked a significant advance in the understanding of seismic activity, providing crucial information that was previously unavailable through other means.


Are such discoveries and inventions still relevant?

The discoveries of ancient civilizations like China and India continue to impact modern science:

  • Earthquake Detection: Zhang Heng’s seismoscope laid the foundation for today’s earthquake detection and early warning systems.

  • Navigation: The Chinese invention of the compass transformed navigation, a principle still used in geolocation technology.

  • Medicine: Techniques from the Sushruta Samhita, like rhinoplasty and cataract surgery, are core to modern reconstructive and eye surgeries.

  • Mathematics: Contributions from Aryabhata in areas like π (pi) and planetary motion are foundational to fields like astronomy and engineering.

  • Papermaking: Chinese papermaking enabled widespread information sharing, a legacy still present in today’s use of paper.


We believe that such examples from the collective human history reminds us of the power of science to unite us in pursuit of understanding and improving our world. 


References

  1. Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Science before the Greeks". The Beginnings of Western Science (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–20. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7.

  2. Grant, Edward (2007). "Ancient Egypt to Plato". A History of Natural Philosophy. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–26. ISBN 978-052-1-68957-1.

  3. Shigeru, Nakayama (1995). "History of East Asian Science: Needs and Opportunities". Osiris. 10: 80–94. doi:10.1086/368744. JSTOR 301914. S2CID 224789083

  4. Bhishagratna, Kaviraj KL (1907). An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita in Three Volumes, (Volume 1, Archived by University of Toronto). Calcutta. Archived from the original on 4 November 2008

  5. Clark, Walter Eugene (1930) “The Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata” University of Chicago Press. Chicago, Illinois.  

  6. Hsiao, K. H., & Yan, H. S. (2009). The review of reconstruction designs of Zhang Heng's seismoscope. Journal of Japan Association for Earthquake Engineering, 9(4), 4_1-4_10.

  7. Jolly, Julius. (1951) “Indian Medicine” Translated by C.G. Kashikar. Vaidika Samshodhana Mandala, Poona. 

  8. Pingree, David (1996) "History of Mathematical Astronomy in India." (edited by C. Walker) British Museum Press, London.

  9. World Science Day for Peace and Development | UNESCO

  10. The Snake Charmer Symbolism

  11. "Dragon, Kung Fu and Jackie Chan ...": Stereotypes about China Held by Malaysian Students

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