Divya Chowdhary: M.A. Palaeography, Epigraphy & Numismatics (IIH, Noida)
Puja Kumari : M.A. Museology (Maharaja Sayajirao University, Baroda)
Saurabh Patil: M.A. AIHC & Archaeology (Deccan College PGRI, Pune)
On this World Tourism Day, as we celebrate the spirit of exploration and the sharing of cultures across the globe, it is fascinating to reflect on some of the earliest forms of tourism—those of foreign travellers who visited India in ancient and early medieval times. People have been travelling throughout history for various reasons—seeking work, trade activities, fleeing natural disasters, serving as soldiers, priests or ambassadors, going on pilgrimages, or simply driven by a sense of adventure. This article talks about some of the most famous foreign travellers to the country, known for their observations on India’s society and culture.
c. 4th-3rd century BCE: Megasthenes
Megasthenes served as an ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya during the reign of Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander's generals and the founder of the Seleucid Empire. This period was characterized by significant political and cultural exchanges between the Hellenistic world and the Indian subcontinent(Thapar 2002, 45) His primary residence was in Pataliputra (modern Patna), the capital known for its sophistication and political significance. (McCrindle 1999, 23)
His visit aimed to establish political ties and gather intelligence about the vast Indian territories (Roper 2009, 78). This diplomatic endeavor underscored the importance of cross-cultural interactions and the exchange of ideas (Thapar 2002, 112). As Megasthenes navigated the complexities of Indian society, his writings served as both a political tool and a cultural bridge, facilitating a dialogue between two distinct civilizations (Thapar 2002, 90).
Megasthenes’ writing style in Indica was characterized by a blend of descriptive observation and analytical commentary. Furthermore, his comparative analyses often juxtaposed Greek and Indian practices, revealing his admiration and occasional skepticism.
As he remarked, "The customs of the Indians are diverse and complex, and in my endeavor to capture their essence, I find myself comparing them with our own, both to highlight their unique virtues and to question our assumptions". (Megasthenes, Indica, trans. McCrindle 1999)
Megasthenes often utilized Greek terminology to convey Indian concepts, such as using "polis" to describe Indian cities and "philosophia" to refer to the rich philosophical traditions in India. (McCrindle 1999, 56)
What he thought of India:
Megasthenes’ reflections on India were marked by admiration and curiosity. He praised the Mauryan system of governance for its ethical framework and emphasis on justice, noting how it contrasted with some of the more chaotic states he had observed in the Hellenistic world. His admiration extended to the philosophical traditions prevalent in India, where he encountered a society deeply engaged in discourse about ethics and morality.
However, his accounts also reveal a sense of bewilderment regarding certain customs, such as the caste system and various religious practices.
“The kings of India, when they are elected, do not go to war until they have consulted their council. They believe that their power is derived from the consent of the people and that they should seek to govern justly."
"The people of India live in cities that are not only large and well-fortified but also exhibit great cleanliness and order. The inhabitants are particularly skilled in various arts and crafts, showing a remarkable dedication to their trades."
"There are many divisions among the people of India, who are categorized by their professions. Each group has its own customs, and the members generally do not intermarry with those of other divisions."
Special Mention
Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador who came to India around the same time as Megasthenes, serves as an important figure in understanding Hellenistic perspectives on Indian culture (Thapar 2002, 78). A notable aspect of Heliodorus' legacy is his dedication of a column in honor of the Buddha in Vidisha, which reflects the syncretic nature of Hellenistic engagement with Indian spirituality (McCrindle 1999, 112). His actions suggest a deeper appreciation for Indian philosophy and religion, contrasting with the more political motivations of Megasthenes (Roper 2009, 45). The Heliodorus pillar, located at Vidisha, features an inscription in Brahmi script that expresses Heliodorus' devotion to Vasudeva, a form of Vishnu. The inscription states that Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador, dedicated the pillar to the god Vasudeva, highlighting his faith and the cultural exchanges of the time.and illustrates the mutual respect between Greek and Indian cultures (Thapar 2002, 90).
c. 4th-5th century CE: Faxian
Fa Hian(法顯), also known as Faxian, was a Chinese Buddhist monk who embarked on an extraordinary pilgrimage to India in the early 5th century CE. His travelogue, often titled Fo-kwo-ki or “Travels of Fa-Hian”, provides detailed accounts of the religious, cultural, and geographical landscapes he encountered along the way.
Faxian’s travels took him across Central Asia, including regions like Khotan and Kashgar, before he entered India through what is now modern-day Pakistan.
Once in India, he traversed a wide swath of the subcontinent, visiting key Buddhist sites such as Kapilavastu, Lumbini (the birthplace of Buddha), Bodh Gaya (where Buddha attained enlightenment), Sarnath, and Kushinagar (where Buddha passed away). His journey extended further south to the areas around the Ganges River, reaching cities such as Pataliputra (modern-day Patna). Eventually, Sir Alexander Cunningham would follow his account to identify the fallen ancient centres of Buddhsit learning in the 19th century.
The Gupta Empire, under the rule of Chandragupta II, was the dominant power in Northern India when Faxian was travelling. His accounts suggest that India, especially under Gupta rule, enjoyed a period of stability, with a flourishing Buddhist culture.
The primary purpose of Faxian's pilgrimage was to gather and study Buddhist scriptures, particularly those related to the Vinaya (the monastic rules of discipline), and to bring these texts back to China to correct what he saw as incomplete or corrupted versions circulating there. His journey was also a spiritual quest, as he sought to visit and venerate the sacred Buddhist sites in India.
He wrote in a simple, factual style. His writing focuses more on observations and descriptions rather than personal reflections. Written in Classical Chinese, he gives detailed descriptions of religious ceremonies, monastic rules, and daily life that provide valuable insights into the Buddhism of the early 5th century.
Faxian’s impressions of India were overwhelmingly positive, especially in regard to its Buddhist institutions. He praised the system of governance, which allowed religious freedom and encouraged charitable practices. Faxian’s method of documentation also follows a careful, scholarly approach, which later inspired other travelers, such as Hiuen Tsang.
c. 7th century CE: Hiuen Tsang
Xuanzang, also known as Hiuen Tsang (玄奘), was a Chinese Buddhist monk, traveler, and scholar who lived during the early 7th century CE. His monumental work, Buddhist Records of the Western World, documents his travels from China to India between 629 and 645 CE.
Xuanzang's journey spanned across Central Asia and into the Indian subcontinent. His travels are meticulously recorded, starting from China, across the Silk Road, through modern-day Uzbekistan, and then descending into the Indian plains via the Hindu Kush mountains. Xuanzang visited key Buddhist centers such as Nalanda, Varanasi, and Bodh Gaya, which were at the heart of Indian Buddhist scholarship.
Xuanzang spent over a decade in India, with most of his time devoted to studying at the famed Nalanda University. During his stay, he traveled extensively across the subcontinent, visiting regions from Kashmir to Bengal, though Nalanda remained his base. Eventually, Sir Alexander Cunnigham would follow his account as well.
Xuanzang traveled during the reign of King Harsha (Harshavardhana), one of the most powerful monarchs of North India. Harsha's court was known for its patronage of scholars, and Xuanzang became one of the honoured guests of the king. Besides Harsha, he encountered other local rulers, whose dominions he travelled through, but Harsha remains the most significant figure in his narrative.
The primary purpose of Xuanzang’s visit to India was to seek out Buddhist scriptures and learn from eminent Indian Buddhist scholars. At the time, there were differences in Buddhist doctrine between Chinese and Indian schools of thought, and Xuanzang sought to resolve these theological issues. His pilgrimage was also aimed at acquiring original Sanskrit texts of Buddhist sutras and commentaries, which he could later translate and disseminate in China.
Xuanzang's work is notable for its detailed and observational style. He wrote in classical Chinese, and his descriptions are marked by a blend of religious zeal and academic rigor. His account of India is one of admiration and reverence, especially for its religious life and intellectual institutions. He speaks highly of the Buddhist community in India, and his reflections on Nalanda University are particularly glowing.
However, he also provides critical observations about the decline of Buddhism in certain areas and the rise of Brahmanism. The mentions of Varna System, and it's rigidity at that time can be seen in his accounts. His descriptions of Indian cities, the lush landscapes, the academic culture, and the piety of the people contribute to the vividness of his portrayal of the subcontinent. Tsang’s travelogue also records India’s advanced knowledge in various fields such as medicine, astronomy, and agriculture.
C. 11th century CE: Al-Biruni
Famously known as “al-Biruni’, Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni was a Khwarizimian scholar who arrived in India during the early 11th century CE. Even by modern standards, he was an exceptional scholar, producing works ranging from astronomy, geography, physics, pharmacology, mineralogy, history and comparative religious studies. He was also a polymath during the Islamic Golden Age, having trained himself in Khwarezmian, Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Syriac, and Greek works translated into Arabic.
Although the exact details of his travels are unclear, it is believed that he explored various regions of Punjab and northern India. (Hasan, 2007)
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