Puja Kumari : M.A. Museology ( Maharaja Sayajirao University, Baroda)
Divya Chowdhary: M.A. Palaeography, Epigraphy & Numismatics (Indian Institute of Heritage)
Saurabh Patil: M.A. AIHC & Archaeology (Deccan College PGRI, Pune)
The ancient Indian subcontinent was home to multiple renowned learning centres, attracting scholars from different parts of the world and playing a vital role in the development and transmission of knowledge across regions. We know of at least the Panchamahavihara existing through the ancient, early medieval and medieval period. This article explores the history, location, curriculum, alumni, stories of destruction and legacy of some of these ancient universities, shedding light on their role as beacons of knowledge and a shared theme of attack on centres of learning. A distinction has been made between a university and a mahavihara, the latter being primarily a centre of Buddhist studies.
TAKSHASHILA UNIVERSITY
Taxila is one of the World Heritage Sites of Pakistan (Hafeez et al., 2023, 435) Takshashila served as the capital of Gandhara during ancient times. This city is located between the river Indus and Jhelum. Takshashila has the geographical advantage by being the meeting point of three important trade routes- Patliputra, China and Afghanistan. (Shahid, 2012, 97)
Its significance grew particularly during the reign of the Achaemenid Empire (circa 6th century BCE) and the subsequent Maurya Empire. (Majumdar 1977). During the Mauryan period under Emperor Ashoka (circa 3rd century BCE), Taxila emerged as a centre of learning. (Singh, 2008, 211)
Takshashila has been mentioned by numerous famous scholars. In the Pali language, Takhasila means the rock of Takshaka. According to Plutarch, Takshashila was as large as Egypt with good pastures and high production of fruits. Fa-Hien spoke about Takshashila as Chu-ch'a-shi-lo, which translates to "cut-off head". (Shahid, 2012, 98)
According to the epic Ramayana, Takshashila was anointed after Bharata's son Taksha. It was mentioned that “Bharata the son of Kaikeyi entered the kingdom of the Gandharvas and established Taksha in Takshashila and Pushkala in Pushkalavata”. (Shahid, 2012, 98)
Sir Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India visited the site in 1863-64 and identified the ruins as ancient Taxila. Later, John Marshall speculated Taxila to consist of three successive towns, that are Achaemenian Bhir Mound, Hellenistic Sirkap and Kushan Sirsukh (Karttunen, Klaus, 1990, 87)
The secular subjects taught in Takshashila, primarily included scientific and technical courses known as silpas. In contrast, the term Vedas referred to the religious and literary subjects. To access the education, students had to pay fees. The Jatakas mention that, in addition to the Vedic courses, Takshashila offered a wide range of subjects in the arts. These included medicine, surgery, archery, military arts, astronomy, astrology, accountancy, commerce, agriculture, divination, snake charming, and magic. (Shahid, 2012, 102)
The university operated under a system where each teacher had freedom over their subject. Teachers had the liberty to pick or deny students, prepare their courses, and determine their teaching methodology. The institution included schools for higher learning which were supported by donations from wealthy patrons and managed by the teachers themselves. (Bhatti Waji 2024)
The decline of Takshashila was greatly influenced by shifting political dynamics on the Indian subcontinent with the downfall of the Gupta Kingdom. As regional powers emerged and declined, the support and patronage these institutions once enjoyed also diminished. The subsequent political instability led to a loss of financial resources. Invasions and political turmoil disrupted trade routes and economic systems that affected the financial stability of these institutions. The decline in wealth directly impacted their ability to attract pupils which led to a gradual loss of academic supremacy. (Majumdar 1977, 116)
NALANDA MAHAVIHARA
Established in the 5th century CE and lasting till around 14th century CE, the Nalanda Mahavihara was a famous international centre for Mahayana Buddhist studies flourishing in the Magadha region of pre-modern India (modern-day Nalanda District, Bihar). An emperor of the Imperial Guptas founded it- Kumaragupta I or ‘Shakraditya’, and was subsequently patronized by many political powers including the Pushyabhuti and Pala kings, even the Javanese rulers.
Inscriptions found at Nalanda suggest that the mahavihara received villages as grants to sustain its faculty and student monks. The case of the 9th century Nalanda Copper Plate Inscription is quite interesting- it states that on request of the Shailendra king Balaputradeva (from Suvarnadvipa or Sumatra, Indonesia), Devapala granted the mahavihara five villages for its upkeep. (Shastri 1924, 310–327)
The curriculum at Nalanda Mahavihara covered a wide range of subjects, including key Buddhist philosophies such as Madhyamaka, Yogachara, and Sarvastivada, alongside non-Buddhist disciplines like the Vedas, grammar, medicine, logic, mathematics, astronomy, and alchemy. The university also housed a renowned library, which became a vital source for Sanskrit texts. (Kumar 2011, 65-80)
Similar to any university of our times, even Nalanda Mahavihara had its own set of what we would call “famous alumni”- including Xuan Zhang (Huien Tsang) and Yijing from China, Thonmi Sambhota from Tibet, Hye-run alias ‘Prajnavarman’ from Korea. The trans-regional nature of Nalanda indicates that seekers of knowledge were undertaking tough travelling challenges to study.
However, the university is said to have sunken into decline during the 12th century following repeated invasions. According to a second-hand episode reported by Minhaj-us-Siraj Juzjani, it seems that the Turkish general Bakhtiyar Khilji initially understood Nalanda to be a military fortress. “The greater number of inhabitants of that place were Brahmanas, and the whole of those Brahmanas had their heads shaven; and they were all slain”. Juzjani further reports that “On becoming acquainted (with the contents of those books), it was found that whole of that fortress and city was a college, and in the Hindui tongue, they called it Bihara (ie. vihara). (Raverty,1881) Evidently, the name of the modern-day State of Bihar is derived from this same vihara.
Another source for the events at Nalanda in the late 12th century are the Tibetian records, especially by Dharmasvamin (discovered in 1936). His account suggests that the destruction of Nalanda was not a mere accident or misunderstanding, but rather part of a larger, deliberate campaign aimed at the widespread destruction of Buddhist monasteries. However, scholars resumed activities at Nalanda on a much smaller scale with donations from a wealthy Brahmin, Jayadeva. Dharmasvamin then recounts Jayadeva's arrest by Turushka soldiers for supporting the monks and his warning to them to flee before an imminent attack. He also witnessed Turushka soldiers from nearby Odantapura, now a military base, attacking the ruins of Nalanda. (Roerich 1959, 90-97)
The destruction of the vast library, known to house thousands of manuscripts, is considered a tragic loss of knowledge. Although some accounts suggest the fire burned for months, the exact details remain unclear till date. Historians also suggest that it was not only the devastating Turkish invasion that pushed the grand university to decline, but it was also the increasing penetration of the tantric Vajrayana practices that had triggered its downfall before the invasion.
By the 14th century, Nalanda Mahavihara had completely faded from prominence, with the physical structure falling into ruins. The legacy of the once grand and famous mahavihara was brought to light only in 19th century, following the surveys by Francis Buchanan-Hamilton, an officer of the British East India Company. Today, the remains of Nalanda are a UNESCO World Heritage site. A new, modern university with the same name has been established in the region by the Government of India.
JAGADDALA MAHAVIHARA
Jagaddala Mahāvihāra was a prominent Buddhist monastery and center of learning established during the Pāla Dynasty (8th to 12th century CE) in ancient Bengal. The exact location of this institution has been debated, but it is generally believed to be situated near the modern village of Jagdal near the town of Dharmoirhat in Bangladesh.(Majumdar,1939) Interestingly, another popular ancient monastery named Somapur or Somapura is situated very close to its location. Though overshadowed by other major Buddhist institutions of the time, Jagaddala Mahāvihāra was a crucial part of the Buddhist monastic network under the Pāla Dynasty. It is considered as the last glory of Buddhism in Eastern India.
The Pāla Dynasty, particularly under the reign of kings like Dharmapāla and Rāmapāla, was known for its support of Buddhist monastic institutions. Jagaddala was likely founded by King Rāmapāla around the late 11th or early 12th century in the ancient city of Ramavati in the Varendra region. (Das, 1996)
Jagaddala Mahāvihāra specialized in Vajrayāna Buddhism (tantric Buddhism) that emphasized esoteric rituals and meditation practices. The monastery is known to have been a center for the composition and preservation of Buddhist texts, many of which were later included in the Tibetan Kangyur and Tengyur.
A scholar named Vidyākara compiled a Koṣa text called Subhāṣitaratnakoṣa in this university. This can be considered as the most notable known work done in this campus. The legacy of Subhāṣitaratnakoṣa still remains with great influence on Sanskrit poetry. (Kosami and Gokhale 1957)
Another scholar associated with the Jagaddala monastery was Makṣaragupta, a master of Mahāyāna philosophy. He authored a Sanskrit work on logic, titled Tarkabhāṣā, which was later translated into Tibetan. In keeping with the traditional practice of Mahāyāna scholars, he concluded his work with a pariṇāmanā—a dedication of merit—stating, "Whatever merit I have gained by writing this Tarkabhāṣā, may it lead the world towards Buddha".(Chowdhury,2005) The original Sanskrit text has been found in the Jaina Manuscript Library in Pattan, Nepal. Additionally, Adikarma Rachana, a Buddhist law book, is attributed to Śubhankaragupta, who was a resident of Jagaddala. Many Tibetan scholars visited Jagaddala, translating important Buddhist texts from Sanskrit into Tibetan, facilitating the spread of Buddhism into Tibetan region.(Bose,1923)
The decline of Jagaddala, like other major Buddhist centers in the region, can be attributed to the invasions of the Turkic Muslim rulers and generals in the early 13th century. Śakyaśrībhadra is believed to have fled from Jagaddala in 1204 when the monastery was threatened by invading forces.(Chowdhury,2005) Historians suggest that Jagaddala was finally abandoned or destroyed around 1207, marking the end of its significance as a center of learning.
The following Sanskrit verse by Sandhyākaranandin in his great epic poem Rāmacaritam, beautifully captures this legacy, celebrating the mahavihara’s glory and its spiritual harmony.(Majumdar, 1939)
मन्द्राणां स्थितिमूढा जगद्दलमहाविहारचितरागाम्।
दधतीं लोकेशमपि महत्तारोदीरितोरुमहिमानम्।।
CONCLUSION
The destruction of ancient universities/ mahaviharas like Takshashila, Nalanda, and Jagaddala marks one of the greatest intellectual and cultural losses in history. These institutions, which once thrived as centers of knowledge, innovation, and spiritual growth, fell victim to political turmoil, invasions, and the changing dynamics of power.
The loss of these universities resulted in the obliteration of thousands of manuscripts, many of which contained irreplaceable knowledge on science, philosophy, medicine, astronomy, and religious practices.
The fall of these centers of learning underscores how vulnerable knowledge can be in times of conflict. The destruction of educational institutions doesn't just affect the present; it has long-lasting consequences that ripple through generations, causing a profound loss of cultural and intellectual heritage. Their demise serves as a powerful reminder of the importance of preserving educational and cultural institutions, ensuring that the flame of learning continues to burn, even in the face of adversity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Altekar, AS. (2009). “Education in Ancient India” Vishal Kaushik Printer, Delhi.
Barua, Dipak Kumar. (1969). “Viharas in Ancient India” Indian Publications, Calcutta.
Bhatti Wajid, Muhammad Hameed, and Illiyen Muhammad Azeem. (2024). “Pilgrims and Prominent Personalities of Taxila”.
Bose, Phanindranath. (1923) “Indian Teachers of Buddhist Universities” Theosophical Pub. House, Madras.
Chowdhury, Rachita. (2005) “Buddhist Monastic Education in Ancient India A Critical Approach” University of Calcutta.
Das, SK. (1996). “The Educational System of the Ancient Hindus” Gyan Publishing House, NewCalcutt.
Ghosh, Amalananda (1965). “A Guide to Nalanda” (5 ed.). New Delhi: The Archaeological Survey of India.
“Jahan-e-Tahqeeq” 7 (1): 1200-1209.
Joshi, Lal Mani (1977). “Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India During the 7th and 8th Centuries A.D.” India: Motilal Banarsidass.
Shastri, Hirananda (1924). "The Nalanda Copper-plate of Devapaladeva". Epigraphia Indica. 17: 310–327.
Jūzjānī, Minhāj Sirāj. (1881). “Ṭabaḳāt-I Nāṣirī: A General History of the Muḥammadan Dynasties of Asia, Including Hindūstān, from A.H. 194 (810 A.D.) to A.H. 658 (1260 A.D.) and the Irruption of the Infidel Mughals Into Islām” . Translated by Henry George Raverty. United Kingdom: Gilbert & Rivington.
Chag lo tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal (1959). “Biography of Dharmasvamin”. Translated by George Roerich. KPJ Research Institute. pp. ii–vi, xxxix–lxv, 90–97.
Klaus, Karttunen. (1990). “Taxila–Indian City and a Stronghold of Hellenism” Arctos–Acta Philologica Fennica 85-96.
Kosambi, DD; Gokhale, VV; (1957). “The Subhāṣitaratnakoṣa by Vidyākara” Harvard University Press, London.
Kumar, Pintu (2011). “The Ancient Nālandā Mahāvihāra: The Beginning of Institutional Education” The Journal of the World Universities Forum. 4 (1): 65–80.
Lee, Kwangsu (1993). “Trade and Religious Contacts Between India and Korea in Ancient Times” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 54: 701–706.
Majumdar, RC. (1977). “Ancient India” Motilal Banarasi Dass Publishers, Delhi.
Majumdar, RC. Basak Radhagovinda, Banerji Nanigopal, (1939). “The Rāmacaritam of Sandhyākaranandin” The Varendra Research Museum, Rajshahi.
Narain, AK. (1970). “The Decline of Taxila University: Historical Perspectives” Cambridge University Press.
Scharfe, Hartmut (2002). “Education in Ancient India” Handbook of Oriental Studies. Vol. 16. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-12556-8.
Singh, Upinder. (2008). “A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century” New Delhi: Pearson Longman.
Comentarios